Lenker+Annotated+Bibliography

Annotated Bibliography



Tami Lenker Professor Smyth EDET 650 29 November 2010 Writing Digitally: An Annotated Bibliography In this bibliography, I surveyed research on writing using digital media and its impact on the writing and composition process. Specifically, I focused on Google Apps for Education and how Google Docs can be used to enhance the high school writing curriculum. ** Adams, D. (2008). Gaga for Google in the Twenty-First Century Advanced Placement Language Classroom.// Clearing House //, // 82 //(2), 96-100. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier database. https://pallas2.tcl.sc.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=35041974&site=ehost-live ** In 2007, Adams looked for a way to use technology to narrow the digital divide between teachers and students in the AP Language classes in his high school. The solution he found was Google Apps. Although his students were predominantly white middle to upper class students with multiple computers in their homes, he found some resistance to creating a separate Google email account. After the first few weeks of getting accounts set up and creating groups, Adams found success with Google Apps as a writing and collaboration tool: "On one file shared in Google Docs in collaborate mode, the students produced more than twelve pages of collective work in fewer than twenty-four hours. This voluntary work was an extension of class discussion. Although traditional word processing occurs in front of a single computer, this document was developed through group editing by synthesizing the comments of several students who were physically miles apart" (p. 99). Google Apps--including Gmail, Google Docs, Gtalk, Google Calendar, iGoogle—allow students and teachers to develop tech literacy skills and narrow the technology gap. ** Arnold, S. (2010). Google enterprise apps: A Microsoft migraine?. // KM World //, // 19 //(6), 1-3. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier database. https://pallas2.tcl.sc.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=51087109&site=ehost-live ** Arnold examined the impact that Google Apps has on Microsoft. This article is important to this topic as educators wonder if it is safe to sink time and resources into Google Apps for Education. It is a free Web 2.0 company and we all know how quickly these sites fall by the wayside. Is it safe to rely on Google for email and collaboration? According to Arnold, Google is here to stay. Google has one thing that has given the company "sticking" power: Amit Singh, the former Oracle CEO. Singh has given the company direction in a new way. Despite the fact that most of the company's revenue comes from advertising, the free Apps are safe. Users continue to rise into 2010 for Gmail, calendar and Docs use. ** Bacci, T. (2008). Invention and Drafting in the Digital Age: New Approaches to Thinking about Writing. Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas, 82(2-), 75-81. Retrieved from ERIC database. https://pallas2.tcl.sc.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=EJ816793&site=ehost-live ** In the early 1980's when computers were first introduced into the classroom, educators predicted a revolution in writing instruction. However, as the decade progressed advances in writing with computers did not. Bacci cited research that showed that "the 1980s and 1990s were spent incorporating computers into classrooms in ways that essentially resisted any kind of meaningful change over the traditional ways of teaching " (p.76). At the present time, computer usage for writing instruction is still basically ineffective. Bacci suggested ways to improve technology use in the writing process. The author suggests creating more meaningful writing instruction through technology by using search engines to aid in brainstorming, using Microsoft Publisher for rhetorical invention, using Power Point for revising and drafting works in progress, and outlining and visualizing writing with Excel. Bacci also discussed the use of web design for an exercise in writing as it allows writers to see their topics in a new light: The creation of a Web site also requires students to make choices regarding their tone and audience when they choose their background style; font size, color, and type; and images that will be incorporated (p. 77). ** Barack, L. (2010). Schools Opt for Google Apps. // School Library Journal //, // 56 //(6), 12. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier database. https://pallas2.tcl.sc.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=51400054&site=ehost-live ** Barack surveyed school districts across the country that use Google Apps for writing, email, and graphic design. Google Apps for Education is a cloud based application in which work is stored remotely thus freeing up server space in over-budgeted districts. Although much of the discussion focused on Google Apps for School's ability to provide a free option for many struggling school districts, the article also investigates the issue of parity. Google Docs allows students to have equal access to tools. They may work on essays without an expensive computer and without an expensive suite of software: "We no longer hold students hostage to paper and pencil" (p. 12). ** Berridge, E. (2009). Peer Interaction and Writing Development in a Social Studies High School Classroom. Online Submission, Retrieved from ERIC database. https://pallas2.tcl.sc.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=ED505545&site=ehost-live ** Berridge's research focused on the writing process in terms of peer evaluation. She discussed the importance of writing for critical thinking and the necessity of using Piaget's constructivist theory to shape the writing process. In other words, students should not be passive bystanders, but they should be active participants in order to truly learn. " Feedback on student work in the peer review process can also allow for teacher-guided, directed feedback. This type of hands-on, student-centered learning allows for reflection of one’s own work by looking at the work of others" (p.7). The use of peer review in writing teaches students to use editing skills, encourages a sense of community in the classroom, and encourages critical thinking. Through research, expert interview, and classroom observation, Berridge found three components of successful peer interaction to be essential: "(1) teacher modeling, (2) embedded writing in the course, and (3) accountability of constructive student interaction" (35). In terms of my research, this is significant in that one of the most powerful tools on Google Docs in the ability to share and collaborate in the writing process. ** Clark, C., Dugdale, G., & National Literacy Trust, (. (2009). Young People's Writing: Attitudes, Behaviour and the Role of Technology. National Literacy Trust, Retrieved from ERIC database. https://pallas2.tcl.sc.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=ED510271&site=ehost-live  **  This study from the UK examined student writing attitudes and behaviors in relation to technology by compiling data about 3001students ages 8-16. In response to evidence which suggests that student achievement in writing lags behind that of achievement in reading and in response to the data that shows that students lack confidence in writing ability, researchers set out to measure and discuss student writing in terms of the existing technology. Social networking, text messaging, online chatting, and general computer use have changed the way students write and view writing. The study showed that students enjoy writing more for family and friends that for school—no surprise there—and that they are unsure of their attitudes toward writing in general. They do not want more time for writing in school, but they do agree that writing is more meaningful when they write about topics that are important to them. In conclusion, researchers make the following recommendation: "Overall, it is paramount that the school curriculum reflects and utilises writing forms that young people enjoy and engage with in order to demonstrate that writing is more than a compulsory task: it is an essential life skill" (p. 38). ** Dessoff, A. (2010). Google and Microsoft Go to School: The computing giants compete to provide powerful online applications to school districts--for free. // District Administration //, // 46 //(8), 61-66. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier database. https://pallas2.tcl.sc.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=53791860&site=ehost-live ** Dessoff discussed the similarities and differences between Google's and Microsoft's free educational suites. Districts are saving millions of dollars by using Google Apps for Education or Microsoft's Live@Ed to provide email and word processing programs. Google offers 7 GB of email storage and Live@Ed offers 10 GB (p. 62). Google Apps offers an integrated calendar which allows users to collaborate on one calendar for planning purposes. Schools use the calendar for things like scheduling laptop carts and computer labs. Live@Ed offers "25 GB of additional file storage per user, document sharing, instant messaging, video chat and mobile e-mail" (p. 62). One district studied had the goals of creating "collaborative and accessible curriculum planning system," reducing paper use, and enabling students and teachers with modern resources (p. 65). The district IT department began by sharing calendars and then created a website for each curriculum area using Google Sites. As teachers collaborated on curriculum they saved their work as web pages and uploaded it to the premade sites. For the first time teachers were sharing work and ideas across the district. One administrator summed up the general attitude that these educators have about these tools: "'Google Apps has changed our culture from the technology standpoint, and given the current economic times, it has been a lifesaver'" (p. 66). ** France, C. (2003, May 1). Improving Student Interest in Writing through the Integration of Technology. Retrieved from ERIC database. https://pallas2.tcl.sc.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=ED478462&site=ehost-live ** In this article, France studied a group of fifth grade students and sought to explore their attitudes toward writing and how to improve these attitudes with technology. France found that the majority of students studied were unmotivated to write. They saw writing as a chore with little meaning. Off task behavior, student product, and student comments coupled with surveys showed that students found little intrinsic value in writing. Surprisingly, students did want to become better writers. A survey of research showed four possible reasons for these attitudes. First, the writing assignments "lacked intrinsic motivation" (p. 11). Second, writing is a complex process and students are easily frustrated by the tasks assigned. The third reason focused on the issue of standardized testing. Teachers are pressured to raise writing scores and so they increase pressure on students to write better thus contributing to an unhappy environment in the classroom. The last reason is the simple fact that students show decreased motivation across the board. Writing is not the only subject in which students are not motivated. "Students have become accustomed to being entertained rather than educated both in and out of school" (p.15). One remedy for these problems is technology as it provides a means of individualizing writing, simplifying the process, and providing a means for peer interaction. Using interventions such as the application Hyper studio, publishing a student newsletter, and by incorporating a variety of writing assignments, the researcher found improved student attitudes and improved student products. ** Kuriloff, P. (2004). Rescuing Writing Instruction: How To Save Time & Money with Technology. Liberal Education, 90(4), 36-41. Retrieved from ERIC database. ** Research showed a stronger relationship between a student's level of engagement in a course and the amount of time spent writing for that course than on any other characteristic. Using a grant from the Mellon Foundation’s Cost-Effective Uses of Technology in Teaching (CEUTT) initiative, Kuriloff created a writing yearlong on-line writing course which concentrated on the writing across the curriculum. The course was structured so that new instructors could use materials and tools that were already in place thus freeing up time for actual student to teacher communication. The course was run through Black Board with thirty students per class. "The highly structured Web environment and the absence of face-to-face class meetings led instructors to see themselves more like course facilitators than traditional professors" (p.40). Students reported that their professors were more approachable and that the students felt a greater sense of community than in their face to face courses. "The relationship between the amount of writing for a course and students’ level of engagement—whether engagement is measured by time spent on the course, or the intellectual challenge it presents, or students’ level of interest in it,” Light reports,“is stronger than the relationship between students’ engagement and any other course characteristic….The simple correlation between the amount of writing required in a course and students’ overall commitment to it tells a lot about the importance of writing” (2001, 55-56).  **  Lai, Yi-hsiu. (2010). Which Do Students Prefer to Evaluate Their Essays: Peers or Computer Program. British Journal of Educational Technology 41.3: 432-454. ERIC. EBSCO. Web. 11 Sept. 2010 http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-8535.2009.00959.x.  **  In this study, Lai looked at the writing evaluation preferences of 22 EFL learners at the university level. She compared the effectiveness of automated writing evaluation (AWE) and peer evaluation (PE). Lai studied the learners' attitudes towards these approaches. Students submitted two essay drafts to My Access, an automated writing evaluation tool. The tool provided students with feedback to improve their writing. For peer evaluation, the students were divided into pairs in order to evaluate the writing. The professor circulated during the peer sessions to offer feedback as needed. According to student survey, peer feedback was more effective than automated feedback--thus bolstering the constructivist approach to teaching. Students considered peers a more authentic audience than the AWE. ** Lasmana, V. (2010). "A Time of Opening": Literary Practices in the Age of New Media and Digital Textuality. // Interdisciplinary Humanities //, // 27 //(1), 70-78. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier database. ** **  https://pallas2.tcl.sc.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=52895756&site=ehost-live  ** In this article, Lasmana discussed the changes that digital media has imposed on our ability to write. Much like the movable type printing press revolutionalized printing, the ability to write on a computer has dramatically changed our ability to compose. We can now manipulate text in a way that we never could. Digital publishing outlets such as blogs give everyone the ability to send their writing out to the world with a click of a button. Lasmana argued that the new media does not supplant the old media but adds to it. For instance, the iPad tries to make reading more like the traditional paper experience and advertises the similarities with "'you already know how to do it'" (p. 73). With the resources available, Lasmana calls for universities to reevaluate the way the teach and use digital media: "What was once thought of as a contradiction is now considered a complementary set of terms: digital and humanities are joined, and what is currently happening in universities across the United States tells us that this has become a reality: in various English departments, concentrations in digital humanities, new media, and technologies of writing are proliferating" (p. 75). ** MacArthur, C. (2009). Reflections on Research on Writing and Technology for Struggling Writers. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 24(2), 93-103. Retrieved from ERIC database. ** ** https://pallas2.tcl.sc.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=EJ837290&site=ehost-live ** MacArthur's article is a research survey on the use of technology in writing instruction for learning disabled students. He discussed word processing, speech recognition software, concept mapping, and automated essay-scoring systems. While there is substantial evidence that word processing software has a positive influence on student writing, much of the research on the other forms of technology is inconclusive. In addition to the survey of writing aids, MacArthur looked at the changes that the Internet has brought to literacy; namely, the new forms of writing that we now see such as texting, instant messaging, and blogging: "We need to consider how to use technological tools to help our students develop effective writing skills in general. Second, we need to recognize that students need to learn how to access information and communicate effectively in the new environment of the Internet. Skill in the use of these tools is important for future employment, for participation as a citizen, and for personal purposes" (100). MacArthur called for teachers to use technology to help students develop more effective and meaningful communication skills. ** Merchant, G. (2007). Writing the future in the digital age. // Literacy //, // 41 //(3), 118-128. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9345.2007.00469.x https://pallas2.tcl.sc.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=27336069&site=ehost-live ** In this article, the researcher examined the concept of digital literacy in relation to writing. Digital literacy is defined as "the study of written or symbolic representation that is mediated by new technology" (121). Reading and writing digitally involves a very different skill set than reading and writing in paper media. Merchant discussed ten shifts between the two medias. With the ability to move "from the fixed to the fluid" text, the ability to "freely, hybridise and mutate," and the tendency to blur boundaries between "work/leisure; public/private; serious/frivolous," dealing with text in the digital world requires new skills (p. 122). If students are going to be prepared for this century, teacher must teach digital literacy skills in the classroom. Merchant calls for increased studies on the best way to teach these skills. We need "innovative work in digital literacy in educational settings particularly to investigate the implications of new forms of social networking, knowledge sharing and knowledge building" (p. 127). ** Montelongo, J., & Herter, R. (2010). Using Technology to Support Expository Reading and Writing in Science Classes. Science Activities: Classroom Projects and Curriculum Ideas, 47(3), 89-102. Retrieved from ERIC database. https://pallas2.tcl.sc.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=EJ886073&site=ehost-live ** Montelongo researched the use of technology in writing instruction for science students. In a very regimented and prescribed method, students worked through scripted paragraphs from textbooks to analyze organizational structures. These text structures acted as a pre-reading exercise to enable students to understand new information and to envision a "mental picture" of the composition structure (p. 92). A comparison between paper and pencil writing and computer based writing showed that students preferred using computers. As it is easier to manipulate text on a computer than on paper, the students showed the ability to write more logically with technology. The author concludes with, "We suggest that the use of this strategy, enhanced by the power of technology, can support expository reading and writing across the entire K–12 science curriculum" (95). ** Nevin, R. (2009). Supporting 21st Century Learning Through Google Apps. // Teacher Librarian //, // 37 //(2), 35-38. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier database. https://pallas2.tcl.sc.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=47500190&site=ehost-live ** Nevin outlined his school adoption of Google Apps for Education. He first defined the term "cloud computing" as access to applications "located on an Internet server, which is referred to as the 'cloud.' The Internet server could be located anywhere in the world, but from the user's point of view, it does not matter where the 'cloud' is located." Google Applications are classified as cloud computing applications, as a local server is unnecessary. Cloud computing is important for schools because struggling districts can free up money spent on local servers and invest it in other things. In 2008, Nevin began his school's adoption of Google Apps for Education with two classes of 12th grade English. The students learned to use the program more quickly than the instructor and Nevin soon had students from other classes asking for usernames. Nevin now uses Google Apps for his entire school. Teachers like the ability to see how many revisions a student is making to a paper in Google Docs. The revision history gives the teacher an idea of how much the paper was revised as an average 3000 word paper may be revised 70 to 300 times. Teacher can tell which students are actually writing their papers and which are cutting an pasting from other sources. Students like the ability to get feedback as they work on an essay. Teachers can comment on written work while the students are working on it. For collaboration, students can work with other students even if they live far from one another. Teachers can see who is contributing and who is not by checking revision history. Each student's work is color-coded. Nevin also lists other advantages: the ability to access Google Docs on a PDA, reduction in paper use, software does not need to be installed, every student has equal access to technology. ** Nicolini, M. (2006). Making Thinking Visible: Writing in the Center. Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas, 80(2-), 66-69. Retrieved from ERIC database. https://pallas2.tcl.sc.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=EJ772109&site=ehost-live ** In this article, Nicolini discusses the Penn High School Writing Center. The center is a 113 computer writing center serving 3,000 students and 180 faculty members. Using word processing software, mind mapping software such as Inspiration, and writing prompt software such as Daedalus, teachers encourage students to write more often and more clearly. The center employs a full-time teacher as the writing center director and an adult aid who works full-time assisting students and trouble-shooting equipment. The center's belief statements are as follows: "Classroom instruction and information management can be strengthened through the efficient use of technology; technology can support student learning; the information explosion requires that appropriate changes in curriculum and instructional delivery take place; students need to know how to access and select from the avalanche of information to help them solve problems; technology can and should facilitate the rethinking and the restructuring of what takes place in the classroom (p. 67). The school has seen increased writing across the curriculum as a result of the center.  **  Raef, C. (1996, April 1). Improving Student Writing Skills through the Use of Technology. Retrieved from ERIC database. https://pallas2.tcl.sc.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=ED399537&site=ehost-live  **  Raef researched the impact of technology and writer's workshops on a group of elementary students. Through writing scores and teacher observation, students were targeted as having substandard writing abilities. Using a pretest as a basis for study, Raef reviewed research on effective writing instruction and found that writing should not be taught in separate classes but integrated into the curriculum. Strategies such as quick-writes should be used to help students learn to write more often and to become more fluent in their writing. Writing curriculum must also motivate students and help students become "personally involved in writing" (22). Research shows that students are more likely to write more when working on a computer than when working with paper and pencil. However, students need to be taught that while a typed essay may look finished it still needs to go through the writing process. The literature review outlines the basic tenets of good writing instruction: "When teachers recognize individuals' writing processes, provide skill and strategy instruction in writing, arrange regular times for authentic writing, and allow technology as a tool for writing, students gain confidence in themselves and their abilities to write" (p. 23). A literature rich writer's workshop two to three times a week that taught the writing process and used technology was implemented as a solution for the poor writing scores. The workshop began with a mini-lesson on an area of writing followed by a verbal contract about what each student will work on and finally a time for sharing written work. Student and teacher surveys and scored writing samples were used to measure the effectiveness of the intervention. ** Strasma, K. (2010). Using Google Documents for Composing Projects that Use Primary Research in First-Year Writing Courses. Teaching English in the Two-Year College, 37(3), 305-311. Retrieved from ERIC database. https://pallas2.tcl.sc.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=EJ879591&site=ehost-live ** Strasma discussed his use of Google docs in first year composition classes. Students used Google Docs for reflective writing as they discussed and examined trends in society, and then they created detailed surveys to collect and analyze data about these trends. Students could collaborate and share work with one another and with the professor in Google Docs, thus eliminating the need for long strings of email. Writing their own surveys gave students the ability to analyze primary source data in an inquiry-based method of instruction. Students chose trends they were interested in and studied these trends by creating their own surveys and then synthesizing the data that they collected into meaningful compositions. Strasma said that Google Docs is the most "effective and efficient tool" available for an inquiry based assignment such as this. ** Turner, K. (2010). Digitalk: A New Literacy for a Digital Generation. // Phi Delta Kappan //, // 91 //(9), 41-46. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier database. https://pallas2.tcl.sc.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=53482100&site=ehost-live ** At first glance this article does not seem to apply to the topic of digital writing. Turner discussed the relatively new language used in instant messaging, PDAs and cell phones. She called this language "digitalk." However, she made some excellent points about teaching writing with technology. Many view the use of language such as "WRU" for "Where are you?" as a corruption of the English language. Students use this type of writing on a daily basis as they communicate with their peers, but in school, this language is inappropriate. Turner called for teachers to consider the value of this language in // some // writing. Specifically, she discussed three types of writing: level 1 writing "allows students to develop their ideas or to reflect metacognitively on what they know about content//.// It does not focus on the presentation of those ideas to others//.// Level 2 writing, which may have a limited audience, attends somewhat more to form, but the purpose of the activity is to help students understand and develop content knowledge//.// Level 3 writing, on the other hand, attends to issues of grammar and mechanics//.// It is often published for a larger audience or to formally demonstrate a student’s learning" (p. 46)//.// Turner discussed the importance of teaching code switching through technology so that teenagers learn to be more aware of the choices they are making when writing. ** Ulusoy, M. (2006). The Role of Computers in Writing Process. Online Submission, Retrieved from ERIC database. ** In this article, Ulusoy studied 25 years of research on the use of computers in the writing process. (The writing process is defined as prewriting, composing, and finally editing.) The study focused on whether or not computers change the writing process. In the prewriting stage, the computer can be an effective prompt for beginning the process. The researcher gave one interesting example where a class discussed the topic of school uniforms digitally in a chat forum and then used that chat to form an outline for composing their essays. Although surveyed studies varied, in the composing stage of the writing process, students generally write more and value the ease and flexibility that word processors provide. Learning-disabled students also perform better with computer based composing tools. With the ability to cut and paste in word processing programs, students obviously perform better. Spell checkers and built in dictionaries simplify the editing and process considerably. Overall, studies show that computers make the writing process easier.